使用联合分布的贝叶斯建模

JointDistributionSequential 是新引入的分布式类，使用户能够快速构建贝叶斯模型原型。它支持将多个分布链接在一起，并使用 lambda 函数来引入依赖项。这旨在构建包括许多常用模型在内的中小型贝叶斯模型，如 GLM、混合效应模型、混合模型等。它可以实现贝叶斯工作流的所有必要功能：先验预测采样，它可以插入另一个更大的贝叶斯图模型或神经网络。在此 Colab 中，我们将展示一些示例以说明如何使用 JointDistributionSequential 来实现您的日常贝叶斯工作流

依赖项和前提条件

# We will be using ArviZ, a multi-backend Bayesian diagnosis and plotting library
pip3 install -q git+git://github.com/arviz-devs/arviz.git

Import and set ups

from pprint import pprint
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import numpy as np
import seaborn as sns
import pandas as pd
import arviz as az

import tensorflow.compat.v2 as tf
tf.enable_v2_behavior()

import tensorflow_probability as tfp

sns.reset_defaults()
#sns.set_style('whitegrid')
#sns.set_context('talk')
sns.set_context(context='talk',font_scale=0.7)

%config InlineBackend.figure_format = 'retina'
%matplotlib inline

tfd = tfp.distributions
tfb = tfp.bijectors

dtype = tf.float64

加快速度！

在我们深入探究之前，请确保我们在此演示中使用 GPU。

为此，请选择“Runtime”->“Change runtime type”->“Hardware accelerator”->“GPU”。

以下代码段将验证我们是否可以使用 GPU。

if tf.test.gpu_device_name() != '/device:GPU:0':
  print('WARNING: GPU device not found.')
else:
  print('SUCCESS: Found GPU: {}'.format(tf.test.gpu_device_name()))

SUCCESS: Found GPU: /device:GPU:0

注：如果由于某种原因无法使用 GPU，则此 Colab 仍然有效。（训练将花费更长时间。）

JointDistribution

注：当您只有一个简单的模型时，此分布类非常实用。“简单”是指链式计算图；尽管该方式在技术上适用于单一节点最多为 255（因为 Python 函数最多可以包含这么多参数）的任何 PGM。

基本理念是让用户指定一个可生成 tfp.Distribution 实例的 callable 列表，逐一用于 PGM 中的每个顶点。callable 最多可具有与其列表内索引同等数量的参数。（为方便用户，参数将以与创建时相反的顺序进行传递。）在内部，我们会通过将每个先前 RV 的值传递给每个可调用对象来“遍历计算图”。这样，我们便实现了[概率的链式法则](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chainrule(probability%29#More_than_two_random_variables): \(p({x}*i^d)=\prod_i^d p(x_i|x*{<i})\)。

这一理念非常简单，即便为 Python 代码。大意如下：

# The chain rule of probability, manifest as Python code.
def log_prob(rvs, xs):
  # xs[:i] is rv[i]'s markov blanket. `[::-1]` just reverses the list.
  return sum(rv(*xs[i-1::-1]).log_prob(xs[i])
             for i, rv in enumerate(rvs))

您可以从 JointDistributionSequential 的文档字符串中找到更多信息，但大意是要传递一个分布列表来初始化类，如果列表中的某些分布取决于另一个上游分布/变量的输出，则只需使用 lambda 函数来对其进行封装。现在，让我们看看它的实际运行效果！

（稳健）线性回归

出自 PyMC3 文档 GLM：使用离群点检测的稳健回归

Get data

dfhogg = pd.DataFrame(np.array([[1, 201, 592, 61, 9, -0.84],
                                 [2, 244, 401, 25, 4, 0.31],
                                 [3, 47, 583, 38, 11, 0.64],
                                 [4, 287, 402, 15, 7, -0.27],
                                 [5, 203, 495, 21, 5, -0.33],
                                 [6, 58, 173, 15, 9, 0.67],
                                 [7, 210, 479, 27, 4, -0.02],
                                 [8, 202, 504, 14, 4, -0.05],
                                 [9, 198, 510, 30, 11, -0.84],
                                 [10, 158, 416, 16, 7, -0.69],
                                 [11, 165, 393, 14, 5, 0.30],
                                 [12, 201, 442, 25, 5, -0.46],
                                 [13, 157, 317, 52, 5, -0.03],
                                 [14, 131, 311, 16, 6, 0.50],
                                 [15, 166, 400, 34, 6, 0.73],
                                 [16, 160, 337, 31, 5, -0.52],
                                 [17, 186, 423, 42, 9, 0.90],
                                 [18, 125, 334, 26, 8, 0.40],
                                 [19, 218, 533, 16, 6, -0.78],
                                 [20, 146, 344, 22, 5, -0.56]]),
                   columns=['id','x','y','sigma_y','sigma_x','rho_xy'])


## for convenience zero-base the 'id' and use as index
dfhogg['id'] = dfhogg['id'] - 1
dfhogg.set_index('id', inplace=True)

## standardize (mean center and divide by 1 sd)
dfhoggs = (dfhogg[['x','y']] - dfhogg[['x','y']].mean(0)) / dfhogg[['x','y']].std(0)
dfhoggs['sigma_y'] = dfhogg['sigma_y'] / dfhogg['y'].std(0)
dfhoggs['sigma_x'] = dfhogg['sigma_x'] / dfhogg['x'].std(0)

def plot_hoggs(dfhoggs):
  ## create xlims ylims for plotting
  xlims = (dfhoggs['x'].min() - np.ptp(dfhoggs['x'])/5,
           dfhoggs['x'].max() + np.ptp(dfhoggs['x'])/5)
  ylims = (dfhoggs['y'].min() - np.ptp(dfhoggs['y'])/5,
           dfhoggs['y'].max() + np.ptp(dfhoggs['y'])/5)

  ## scatterplot the standardized data
  g = sns.FacetGrid(dfhoggs, size=8)
  _ = g.map(plt.errorbar, 'x', 'y', 'sigma_y', 'sigma_x', marker="o", ls='')
  _ = g.axes[0][0].set_ylim(ylims)
  _ = g.axes[0][0].set_xlim(xlims)

  plt.subplots_adjust(top=0.92)
  _ = g.fig.suptitle('Scatterplot of Hogg 2010 dataset after standardization', fontsize=16)
  return g, xlims, ylims

g = plot_hoggs(dfhoggs)

/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/numpy/core/fromnumeric.py:2495: FutureWarning: Method .ptp is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use numpy.ptp instead.
  return ptp(axis=axis, out=out, **kwargs)
/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/seaborn/axisgrid.py:230: UserWarning: The `size` paramter has been renamed to `height`; please update your code.
  warnings.warn(msg, UserWarning)

png

X_np = dfhoggs['x'].values
sigma_y_np = dfhoggs['sigma_y'].values
Y_np = dfhoggs['y'].values

传统 OLS 模型

现在，让我们建立一个线性模型，一个简单的截距 + 斜率回归问题：

mdl_ols = tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
    # b0 ~ Normal(0, 1)
    tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.),
    # b1 ~ Normal(0, 1)
    tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.),
    # x ~ Normal(b0+b1*X, 1)
    lambda b1, b0: tfd.Normal(
      # Parameter transformation
      loc=b0 + b1*X_np,
      scale=sigma_y_np)
])

然后，您可以检查模型的计算图以查看依赖关系。请注意，x 保留为最后一个节点的名称，您无法确定它是 JointDistributionSequential 模型中的 lambda 参数。

mdl_ols.resolve_graph()

(('b0', ()), ('b1', ()), ('x', ('b1', 'b0')))

从模型中采样非常简单：

mdl_ols.sample()

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=-0.50225804634794>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=0.682740126293564>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(20,), dtype=float64, numpy=
 array([-0.33051382,  0.71443618, -1.91085683,  0.89371173, -0.45060957,
        -1.80448758, -0.21357082,  0.07891058, -0.20689721, -0.62690385,
        -0.55225748, -0.11446535, -0.66624497, -0.86913291, -0.93605552,
        -0.83965336, -0.70988597, -0.95813437,  0.15884761, -0.31113434])>]

…它提供了 tf.Tensor 列表。您可以立即将其插入 log_prob 函数以计算模型的 log_prob：

prior_predictive_samples = mdl_ols.sample()
mdl_ols.log_prob(prior_predictive_samples)

<tf.Tensor: shape=(20,), dtype=float64, numpy=
array([-4.97502846, -3.98544303, -4.37514505, -3.46933487, -3.80688125,
       -3.42907525, -4.03263074, -3.3646366 , -4.70370938, -4.36178501,
       -3.47823735, -3.94641662, -5.76906319, -4.0944128 , -4.39310708,
       -4.47713894, -4.46307881, -3.98802372, -3.83027747, -4.64777082])>

嗯，这里有些不太对：我们应该得到一个标量 log_prob！实际上，我们可以通过调用 .log_prob_parts 来进一步检查是否存在问题，它给出了图模型中每个节点的 log_prob：

mdl_ols.log_prob_parts(prior_predictive_samples)

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=-0.9699239562734849>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=-3.459364167569284>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(20,), dtype=float64, numpy=
 array([-0.54574034,  0.4438451 ,  0.05414307,  0.95995326,  0.62240687,
         1.00021288,  0.39665739,  1.06465152, -0.27442125,  0.06750311,
         0.95105078,  0.4828715 , -1.33977506,  0.33487533,  0.03618104,
        -0.04785082, -0.03379069,  0.4412644 ,  0.59901066, -0.2184827 ])>]

…结果是最后一个节点并未沿 i.i.d. 维度/轴求 reduce_sum！当我们求和时，前两个变量因此被错误地广播。

这里的技巧是使用 tfd.Independent 重新解释批次形状（以便轴的其余部分被正确缩减）：

mdl_ols_ = tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
    # b0
    tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.),
    # b1
    tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.),
    # likelihood
    #   Using Independent to ensure the log_prob is not incorrectly broadcasted
    lambda b1, b0: tfd.Independent(
        tfd.Normal(
            # Parameter transformation
            # b1 shape: (batch_shape), X shape (num_obs): we want result to have
            # shape (batch_shape, num_obs)
            loc=b0 + b1*X_np,
            scale=sigma_y_np),
        reinterpreted_batch_ndims=1
    ),
])

现在，让我们检查模型的最后一个节点/分布，您可以看到事件形状现已正确解释。请注意，可能需要一些反复试验才能使 reinterpreted_batch_ndims 正确，但您始终可以轻松打印分布或采样的张量以复查形状！

print(mdl_ols_.sample_distributions()[0][-1])
print(mdl_ols.sample_distributions()[0][-1])

tfp.distributions.Independent("JointDistributionSequential_sample_distributions_IndependentJointDistributionSequential_sample_distributions_Normal", batch_shape=[], event_shape=[20], dtype=float64)
tfp.distributions.Normal("JointDistributionSequential_sample_distributions_Normal", batch_shape=[20], event_shape=[], dtype=float64)

prior_predictive_samples = mdl_ols_.sample()
mdl_ols_.log_prob(prior_predictive_samples)  # <== Getting a scalar correctly

<tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=-2.543425661013286>

其他 `JointDistribution*` API

mdl_ols_named = tfd.JointDistributionNamed(dict(
    likelihood = lambda b0, b1: tfd.Independent(
        tfd.Normal(
            loc=b0 + b1*X_np,
            scale=sigma_y_np),
        reinterpreted_batch_ndims=1
    ),
    b0         = tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.),
    b1         = tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.),
))

mdl_ols_named.log_prob(mdl_ols_named.sample())

<tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=-5.99620966071338>

mdl_ols_named.sample()  # output is a dictionary

{'b0': <tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=0.26364058399428225>,
 'b1': <tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=-0.27209402374432207>,
 'likelihood': <tf.Tensor: shape=(20,), dtype=float64, numpy=
 array([ 0.6482155 , -0.39314108,  0.62744764, -0.24587987, -0.20544617,
         1.01465392, -0.04705611, -0.16618702,  0.36410134,  0.3943299 ,
         0.36455291, -0.27822219, -0.24423928,  0.24599518,  0.82731092,
        -0.21983033,  0.56753169,  0.32830481, -0.15713064,  0.23336351])>}

Root = tfd.JointDistributionCoroutine.Root  # Convenient alias.
def model():
  b1 = yield Root(tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.))
  b0 = yield Root(tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.))
  yhat = b0 + b1*X_np
  likelihood = yield tfd.Independent(
        tfd.Normal(loc=yhat, scale=sigma_y_np),
        reinterpreted_batch_ndims=1
    )

mdl_ols_coroutine = tfd.JointDistributionCoroutine(model)
mdl_ols_coroutine.log_prob(mdl_ols_coroutine.sample())

<tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=-4.566678123520463>

mdl_ols_coroutine.sample()  # output is a tuple

(<tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=0.06811002171170354>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(), dtype=float64, numpy=-0.37477064754116807>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(20,), dtype=float64, numpy=
 array([-0.91615096, -0.20244718, -0.47840159, -0.26632479, -0.60441105,
        -0.48977789, -0.32422329, -0.44019322, -0.17072643, -0.20666025,
        -0.55932191, -0.40801868, -0.66893181, -0.24134135, -0.50403536,
        -0.51788596, -0.90071876, -0.47382338, -0.34821655, -0.38559724])>)

最大似然估计

现在，我们可以进行推断了！您可以使用优化器来找到最大似然估计。

Define some helper functions

# bfgs and lbfgs currently requries a function that returns both the value and
# gradient re the input.
import functools

def _make_val_and_grad_fn(value_fn):
  @functools.wraps(value_fn)
  def val_and_grad(x):
    return tfp.math.value_and_gradient(value_fn, x)
  return val_and_grad

# Map a list of tensors (e.g., output from JDSeq.sample([...])) to a single tensor
# modify from tfd.Blockwise
from tensorflow_probability.python.internal import dtype_util
from tensorflow_probability.python.internal import prefer_static as ps
from tensorflow_probability.python.internal import tensorshape_util

class Mapper:
  """Basically, this is a bijector without log-jacobian correction."""
  def __init__(self, list_of_tensors, list_of_bijectors, event_shape):
    self.dtype = dtype_util.common_dtype(
        list_of_tensors, dtype_hint=tf.float32)
    self.list_of_tensors = list_of_tensors
    self.bijectors = list_of_bijectors
    self.event_shape = event_shape

  def flatten_and_concat(self, list_of_tensors):
    def _reshape_map_part(part, event_shape, bijector):
      part = tf.cast(bijector.inverse(part), self.dtype)
      static_rank = tf.get_static_value(ps.rank_from_shape(event_shape))
      if static_rank == 1:
        return part
      new_shape = ps.concat([
          ps.shape(part)[:ps.size(ps.shape(part)) - ps.size(event_shape)], 
          [-1]
      ], axis=-1)
      return tf.reshape(part, ps.cast(new_shape, tf.int32))

    x = tf.nest.map_structure(_reshape_map_part,
                              list_of_tensors,
                              self.event_shape,
                              self.bijectors)
    return tf.concat(tf.nest.flatten(x), axis=-1)

  def split_and_reshape(self, x):
    assertions = []
    message = 'Input must have at least one dimension.'
    if tensorshape_util.rank(x.shape) is not None:
      if tensorshape_util.rank(x.shape) == 0:
        raise ValueError(message)
    else:
      assertions.append(assert_util.assert_rank_at_least(x, 1, message=message))
    with tf.control_dependencies(assertions):
      splits = [
          tf.cast(ps.maximum(1, ps.reduce_prod(s)), tf.int32)
          for s in tf.nest.flatten(self.event_shape)
      ]
      x = tf.nest.pack_sequence_as(
          self.event_shape, tf.split(x, splits, axis=-1))
      def _reshape_map_part(part, part_org, event_shape, bijector):
        part = tf.cast(bijector.forward(part), part_org.dtype)
        static_rank = tf.get_static_value(ps.rank_from_shape(event_shape))
        if static_rank == 1:
          return part
        new_shape = ps.concat([ps.shape(part)[:-1], event_shape], axis=-1)
        return tf.reshape(part, ps.cast(new_shape, tf.int32))

      x = tf.nest.map_structure(_reshape_map_part,
                                x, 
                                self.list_of_tensors,
                                self.event_shape,
                                self.bijectors)
    return x

mapper = Mapper(mdl_ols_.sample()[:-1],
                [tfb.Identity(), tfb.Identity()],
                mdl_ols_.event_shape[:-1])

# mapper.split_and_reshape(mapper.flatten_and_concat(mdl_ols_.sample()[:-1]))

@_make_val_and_grad_fn
def neg_log_likelihood(x):
  # Generate a function closure so that we are computing the log_prob
  # conditioned on the observed data. Note also that tfp.optimizer.* takes a 
  # single tensor as input.
  return -mdl_ols_.log_prob(mapper.split_and_reshape(x) + [Y_np])

lbfgs_results = tfp.optimizer.lbfgs_minimize(
    neg_log_likelihood,
    initial_position=tf.zeros(2, dtype=dtype),
    tolerance=1e-20,
    x_tolerance=1e-8
)

b0est, b1est = lbfgs_results.position.numpy()

g, xlims, ylims = plot_hoggs(dfhoggs);
xrange = np.linspace(xlims[0], xlims[1], 100)
g.axes[0][0].plot(xrange, b0est + b1est*xrange, 
                  color='r', label='MLE of OLE model')
plt.legend();

/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/numpy/core/fromnumeric.py:2495: FutureWarning: Method .ptp is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use numpy.ptp instead.
  return ptp(axis=axis, out=out, **kwargs)
/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/seaborn/axisgrid.py:230: UserWarning: The `size` paramter has been renamed to `height`; please update your code.
  warnings.warn(msg, UserWarning)

png

批处理版本模型和马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法

在贝叶斯推断中，我们通常希望使用马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛样本，因为当样本来自后验时，我们可以将其插入到任何函数中来计算期望值。然而，马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛 API 要求我们编写批处理友好型模型，我们可以通过调用 sample([...]) 来检查实际上不可“批处理”的模型

mdl_ols_.sample(5)  # <== error as some computation could not be broadcasted.

此例相对简单，因为我们的模型中只有一个线性函数，扩展形状应该奏效：

mdl_ols_batch = tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
    # b0
    tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.),
    # b1
    tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.),
    # likelihood
    #   Using Independent to ensure the log_prob is not incorrectly broadcasted
    lambda b1, b0: tfd.Independent(
        tfd.Normal(
            # Parameter transformation
            loc=b0[..., tf.newaxis] + b1[..., tf.newaxis]*X_np[tf.newaxis, ...],
            scale=sigma_y_np[tf.newaxis, ...]),
        reinterpreted_batch_ndims=1
    ),
])

mdl_ols_batch.resolve_graph()

(('b0', ()), ('b1', ()), ('x', ('b1', 'b0')))

我们可以再次对 log_prob_parts 进行采样和评估以进行一些检查：

b0, b1, y = mdl_ols_batch.sample(4)
mdl_ols_batch.log_prob_parts([b0, b1, y])

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-1.25230168, -1.45281432, -1.87110061, -1.07665206])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-1.07019936, -1.59562117, -2.53387765, -1.01557632])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([ 0.45841406,  2.56829635, -4.84973951, -5.59423992])>]

一些附注：

我们希望使用批处理版本模型，因为它对于多链马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法来说速度最快。如果您无法将模型重写为批处理版本（例如 ODE 模型），您可以使用 tf.map_fn 映射 log_prob 函数以达到相同的效果。
现在，由于我们具有先验标量，因此 mdl_ols_batch.sample() 可能不起作用，原因是我们不能执行 scalar_tensor[:, None]。这里的解决方案是通过封装 tfd.Sample(..., sample_shape=1) 将标量张量扩展到 1 阶。
将模型编写为函数是一种很好的做法，这样您就可以更轻松地更改超参数等设置。

def gen_ols_batch_model(X, sigma, hyperprior_mean=0, hyperprior_scale=1):
  hyper_mean = tf.cast(hyperprior_mean, dtype)
  hyper_scale = tf.cast(hyperprior_scale, dtype)
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      # b0
      tfd.Sample(tfd.Normal(loc=hyper_mean, scale=hyper_scale), sample_shape=1),
      # b1
      tfd.Sample(tfd.Normal(loc=hyper_mean, scale=hyper_scale), sample_shape=1),
      # likelihood
      lambda b1, b0: tfd.Independent(
          tfd.Normal(
              # Parameter transformation
              loc=b0 + b1*X,
              scale=sigma),
          reinterpreted_batch_ndims=1
      ),
  ], validate_args=True)

mdl_ols_batch = gen_ols_batch_model(X_np[tf.newaxis, ...],
                                    sigma_y_np[tf.newaxis, ...])

_ = mdl_ols_batch.sample()
_ = mdl_ols_batch.sample(4)
_ = mdl_ols_batch.sample([3, 4])

# Small helper function to validate log_prob shape (avoid wrong broadcasting)
def validate_log_prob_part(model, batch_shape=1, observed=-1):
  samples = model.sample(batch_shape)
  logp_part = list(model.log_prob_parts(samples))

  # exclude observed node
  logp_part.pop(observed)
  for part in logp_part:
    tf.assert_equal(part.shape, logp_part[-1].shape)

validate_log_prob_part(mdl_ols_batch, 4)

More checks: comparing the generated log_prob fucntion with handwrittent TFP log_prob function.

def ols_logp_batch(b0, b1, Y):
  b0_prior = tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.) # b0
  b1_prior = tfd.Normal(loc=tf.cast(0, dtype), scale=1.) # b1
  likelihood = tfd.Normal(loc=b0 + b1*X_np[None, :],
                          scale=sigma_y_np) # likelihood
  return tf.reduce_sum(b0_prior.log_prob(b0), axis=-1) +\
         tf.reduce_sum(b1_prior.log_prob(b1), axis=-1) +\
         tf.reduce_sum(likelihood.log_prob(Y), axis=-1)

b0, b1, x = mdl_ols_batch.sample(4)
print(mdl_ols_batch.log_prob([b0, b1, Y_np]).numpy()) 
print(ols_logp_batch(b0, b1, Y_np).numpy())

[-227.37899384 -327.10043743 -570.44162789 -702.79808683]
[-227.37899384 -327.10043743 -570.44162789 -702.79808683]

使用 No-U-Turn 采样器的马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法

A common `run_chain` function

@tf.function(autograph=False, experimental_compile=True)
def run_chain(init_state, step_size, target_log_prob_fn, unconstraining_bijectors,
              num_steps=500, burnin=50):

  def trace_fn(_, pkr):
    return (
        pkr.inner_results.inner_results.target_log_prob,
        pkr.inner_results.inner_results.leapfrogs_taken,
        pkr.inner_results.inner_results.has_divergence,
        pkr.inner_results.inner_results.energy,
        pkr.inner_results.inner_results.log_accept_ratio
           )

  kernel = tfp.mcmc.TransformedTransitionKernel(
    inner_kernel=tfp.mcmc.NoUTurnSampler(
      target_log_prob_fn,
      step_size=step_size),
    bijector=unconstraining_bijectors)

  hmc = tfp.mcmc.DualAveragingStepSizeAdaptation(
    inner_kernel=kernel,
    num_adaptation_steps=burnin,
    step_size_setter_fn=lambda pkr, new_step_size: pkr._replace(
        inner_results=pkr.inner_results._replace(step_size=new_step_size)),
    step_size_getter_fn=lambda pkr: pkr.inner_results.step_size,
    log_accept_prob_getter_fn=lambda pkr: pkr.inner_results.log_accept_ratio
  )

  # Sampling from the chain.
  chain_state, sampler_stat = tfp.mcmc.sample_chain(
      num_results=num_steps,
      num_burnin_steps=burnin,
      current_state=init_state,
      kernel=hmc,
      trace_fn=trace_fn)
  return chain_state, sampler_stat

nchain = 10
b0, b1, _ = mdl_ols_batch.sample(nchain)
init_state = [b0, b1]
step_size = [tf.cast(i, dtype=dtype) for i in [.1, .1]]
target_log_prob_fn = lambda *x: mdl_ols_batch.log_prob(x + (Y_np, ))

# bijector to map contrained parameters to real
unconstraining_bijectors = [
    tfb.Identity(),
    tfb.Identity(),
]

samples, sampler_stat = run_chain(
    init_state, step_size, target_log_prob_fn, unconstraining_bijectors)

# using the pymc3 naming convention
sample_stats_name = ['lp', 'tree_size', 'diverging', 'energy', 'mean_tree_accept']
sample_stats = {k:v.numpy().T for k, v in zip(sample_stats_name, sampler_stat)}
sample_stats['tree_size'] = np.diff(sample_stats['tree_size'], axis=1)

var_name = ['b0', 'b1']
posterior = {k:np.swapaxes(v.numpy(), 1, 0) 
             for k, v in zip(var_name, samples)}

az_trace = az.from_dict(posterior=posterior, sample_stats=sample_stats)

az.plot_trace(az_trace);

png

az.plot_forest(az_trace,
               kind='ridgeplot',
               linewidth=4,
               combined=True,
               ridgeplot_overlap=1.5,
               figsize=(9, 4));

png

k = 5
b0est, b1est = az_trace.posterior['b0'][:, -k:].values, az_trace.posterior['b1'][:, -k:].values

g, xlims, ylims = plot_hoggs(dfhoggs);
xrange = np.linspace(xlims[0], xlims[1], 100)[None, :]
g.axes[0][0].plot(np.tile(xrange, (k, 1)).T,
                  (np.reshape(b0est, [-1, 1]) + np.reshape(b1est, [-1, 1])*xrange).T,
                  alpha=.25, color='r')
plt.legend([g.axes[0][0].lines[-1]], ['MCMC OLE model']);

/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/numpy/core/fromnumeric.py:2495: FutureWarning: Method .ptp is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use numpy.ptp instead.
  return ptp(axis=axis, out=out, **kwargs)
/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/seaborn/axisgrid.py:230: UserWarning: The `size` paramter has been renamed to `height`; please update your code.
  warnings.warn(msg, UserWarning)
/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/ipykernel_launcher.py:8: MatplotlibDeprecationWarning: cycling among columns of inputs with non-matching shapes is deprecated.

png

Student-T 方法

请注意，我们从现在开始将始终使用批处理版本模型

def gen_studentt_model(X, sigma,
                       hyper_mean=0, hyper_scale=1, lower=1, upper=100):
  loc = tf.cast(hyper_mean, dtype)
  scale = tf.cast(hyper_scale, dtype)
  low = tf.cast(lower, dtype)
  high = tf.cast(upper, dtype)
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      # b0 ~ Normal(0, 1)
      tfd.Sample(tfd.Normal(loc, scale), sample_shape=1),
      # b1 ~ Normal(0, 1)
      tfd.Sample(tfd.Normal(loc, scale), sample_shape=1),
      # df ~ Uniform(a, b)
      tfd.Sample(tfd.Uniform(low, high), sample_shape=1),
      # likelihood ~ StudentT(df, f(b0, b1), sigma_y)
      #   Using Independent to ensure the log_prob is not incorrectly broadcasted.
      lambda df, b1, b0: tfd.Independent(
          tfd.StudentT(df=df, loc=b0 + b1*X, scale=sigma)),
  ], validate_args=True)

mdl_studentt = gen_studentt_model(X_np[tf.newaxis, ...],
                                  sigma_y_np[tf.newaxis, ...])
mdl_studentt.resolve_graph()

(('b0', ()), ('b1', ()), ('df', ()), ('x', ('df', 'b1', 'b0')))

validate_log_prob_part(mdl_studentt, 4)

前向采样（先验预测采样）

b0, b1, df, x = mdl_studentt.sample(1000)
x.shape

TensorShape([1000, 20])

最大似然估计

# bijector to map contrained parameters to real
a, b = tf.constant(1., dtype), tf.constant(100., dtype),

# Interval transformation
tfp_interval = tfb.Inline(
    inverse_fn=(
        lambda x: tf.math.log(x - a) - tf.math.log(b - x)),
    forward_fn=(
        lambda y: (b - a) * tf.sigmoid(y) + a),
    forward_log_det_jacobian_fn=(
        lambda x: tf.math.log(b - a) - 2 * tf.nn.softplus(-x) - x),
    forward_min_event_ndims=0,
    name="interval")

unconstraining_bijectors = [
    tfb.Identity(),
    tfb.Identity(),
    tfp_interval,
]

mapper = Mapper(mdl_studentt.sample()[:-1],
                unconstraining_bijectors,
                mdl_studentt.event_shape[:-1])

@_make_val_and_grad_fn
def neg_log_likelihood(x):
  # Generate a function closure so that we are computing the log_prob
  # conditioned on the observed data. Note also that tfp.optimizer.* takes a 
  # single tensor as input, so we need to do some slicing here:
  return -tf.squeeze(mdl_studentt.log_prob(
      mapper.split_and_reshape(x) + [Y_np]))

lbfgs_results = tfp.optimizer.lbfgs_minimize(
    neg_log_likelihood,
    initial_position=mapper.flatten_and_concat(mdl_studentt.sample()[:-1]),
    tolerance=1e-20,
    x_tolerance=1e-20
)

b0est, b1est, dfest = lbfgs_results.position.numpy()

g, xlims, ylims = plot_hoggs(dfhoggs);
xrange = np.linspace(xlims[0], xlims[1], 100)
g.axes[0][0].plot(xrange, b0est + b1est*xrange, 
                  color='r', label='MLE of StudentT model')
plt.legend();

/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/numpy/core/fromnumeric.py:2495: FutureWarning: Method .ptp is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use numpy.ptp instead.
  return ptp(axis=axis, out=out, **kwargs)
/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/seaborn/axisgrid.py:230: UserWarning: The `size` paramter has been renamed to `height`; please update your code.
  warnings.warn(msg, UserWarning)

png

马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法

nchain = 10
b0, b1, df, _ = mdl_studentt.sample(nchain)
init_state = [b0, b1, df]
step_size = [tf.cast(i, dtype=dtype) for i in [.1, .1, .05]]

target_log_prob_fn = lambda *x: mdl_studentt.log_prob(x + (Y_np, ))

samples, sampler_stat = run_chain(
    init_state, step_size, target_log_prob_fn, unconstraining_bijectors, burnin=100)

# using the pymc3 naming convention
sample_stats_name = ['lp', 'tree_size', 'diverging', 'energy', 'mean_tree_accept']
sample_stats = {k:v.numpy().T for k, v in zip(sample_stats_name, sampler_stat)}
sample_stats['tree_size'] = np.diff(sample_stats['tree_size'], axis=1)

var_name = ['b0', 'b1', 'df']
posterior = {k:np.swapaxes(v.numpy(), 1, 0) 
             for k, v in zip(var_name, samples)}

az_trace = az.from_dict(posterior=posterior, sample_stats=sample_stats)

az.summary(az_trace)

az.plot_trace(az_trace);

png

az.plot_forest(az_trace,
               kind='ridgeplot',
               linewidth=4,
               combined=True,
               ridgeplot_overlap=1.5,
               figsize=(9, 4));

png

plt.hist(az_trace.sample_stats['tree_size'], np.linspace(.5, 25.5, 26), alpha=.5);

png

k = 5
b0est, b1est = az_trace.posterior['b0'][:, -k:].values, az_trace.posterior['b1'][:, -k:].values

g, xlims, ylims = plot_hoggs(dfhoggs);
xrange = np.linspace(xlims[0], xlims[1], 100)[None, :]
g.axes[0][0].plot(np.tile(xrange, (k, 1)).T,
                  (np.reshape(b0est, [-1, 1]) + np.reshape(b1est, [-1, 1])*xrange).T,
                  alpha=.25, color='r')
plt.legend([g.axes[0][0].lines[-1]], ['MCMC StudentT model']);

/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/numpy/core/fromnumeric.py:2495: FutureWarning: Method .ptp is deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Use numpy.ptp instead.
  return ptp(axis=axis, out=out, **kwargs)
/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/seaborn/axisgrid.py:230: UserWarning: The `size` paramter has been renamed to `height`; please update your code.
  warnings.warn(msg, UserWarning)
/usr/local/lib/python3.6/dist-packages/ipykernel_launcher.py:8: MatplotlibDeprecationWarning: cycling among columns of inputs with non-matching shapes is deprecated.

png

分层部分池化

出自 PyMC3 来自 Efron 和 Morris (1975) 的 18 名球员的棒球数据

data = pd.read_table('https://raw.githubusercontent.com/pymc-devs/pymc3/master/pymc3/examples/data/efron-morris-75-data.tsv',
                     sep="\t")
at_bats, hits = data[['At-Bats', 'Hits']].values.T
n = len(at_bats)

def gen_baseball_model(at_bats, rate=1.5, a=0, b=1):
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
    # phi
    tfd.Uniform(low=tf.cast(a, dtype), high=tf.cast(b, dtype)),
    # kappa_log
    tfd.Exponential(rate=tf.cast(rate, dtype)),
    # thetas
    lambda kappa_log, phi: tfd.Sample(
        tfd.Beta(
            concentration1=tf.exp(kappa_log)*phi,
            concentration0=tf.exp(kappa_log)*(1.0-phi)),
        sample_shape=n
    ),
    # likelihood
    lambda thetas: tfd.Independent(
        tfd.Binomial(
            total_count=tf.cast(at_bats, dtype),
            probs=thetas
        )), 
])

mdl_baseball = gen_baseball_model(at_bats)
mdl_baseball.resolve_graph()

(('phi', ()),
 ('kappa_log', ()),
 ('thetas', ('kappa_log', 'phi')),
 ('x', ('thetas',)))

前向采样（先验预测采样）

phi, kappa_log, thetas, y = mdl_baseball.sample(4)
# phi, kappa_log, thetas, y

再次注意，如果您不使用 Independent，最终会得到具有错误 batch_shape 的 log_prob。

# check logp
pprint(mdl_baseball.log_prob_parts([phi, kappa_log, thetas, hits]))
print(mdl_baseball.log_prob([phi, kappa_log, thetas, hits]))

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([0., 0., 0., 0.])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([ 0.1721297 , -0.95946498, -0.72591188,  0.23993813])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([59.35192283,  7.0650634 ,  0.83744911, 74.14370935])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-3279.75191016,  -931.10438484,  -512.59197688, -1131.08043597])>]
tf.Tensor([-3220.22785762  -924.99878641  -512.48043966 -1056.69678849], shape=(4,), dtype=float64)

最大似然估计

tfp.optimizer 的一个非常惊人的功能是，您可以并行优化 k 批起点并指定 stopping_condition kwarg：您可以将其设置为 tfp.optimizer.converged_all 以查看它们是否全部找到相同的最小值，或设置为 tfp.optimizer.converged_any 以快速找到局部解。

unconstraining_bijectors = [
    tfb.Sigmoid(),
    tfb.Exp(),
    tfb.Sigmoid(),
]

phi, kappa_log, thetas, y = mdl_baseball.sample(10)

mapper = Mapper([phi, kappa_log, thetas],
                unconstraining_bijectors,
                mdl_baseball.event_shape[:-1])

@_make_val_and_grad_fn
def neg_log_likelihood(x):
  return -mdl_baseball.log_prob(mapper.split_and_reshape(x) + [hits])

start = mapper.flatten_and_concat([phi, kappa_log, thetas])

lbfgs_results = tfp.optimizer.lbfgs_minimize(
    neg_log_likelihood,
    num_correction_pairs=10,
    initial_position=start,
    # lbfgs actually can work in batch as well
    stopping_condition=tfp.optimizer.converged_any,
    tolerance=1e-50,
    x_tolerance=1e-50,
    parallel_iterations=10,
    max_iterations=200
)

lbfgs_results.converged.numpy(), lbfgs_results.failed.numpy()

(array([False, False, False, False, False, False, False, False, False,
        False]),
 array([ True,  True,  True,  True,  True,  True,  True,  True,  True,
         True]))

result = lbfgs_results.position[lbfgs_results.converged & ~lbfgs_results.failed]
result

<tf.Tensor: shape=(0, 20), dtype=float64, numpy=array([], shape=(0, 20), dtype=float64)>

LBFGS 没有收敛。

if result.shape[0] > 0:
  phi_est, kappa_est, theta_est = mapper.split_and_reshape(result)
  phi_est, kappa_est, theta_est

马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法

target_log_prob_fn = lambda *x: mdl_baseball.log_prob(x + (hits, ))

nchain = 4
phi, kappa_log, thetas, _ = mdl_baseball.sample(nchain)
init_state = [phi, kappa_log, thetas]
step_size=[tf.cast(i, dtype=dtype) for i in [.1, .1, .1]]

samples, sampler_stat = run_chain(
    init_state, step_size, target_log_prob_fn, unconstraining_bijectors,
    burnin=200)

# using the pymc3 naming convention
sample_stats_name = ['lp', 'tree_size', 'diverging', 'energy', 'mean_tree_accept']
sample_stats = {k:v.numpy().T for k, v in zip(sample_stats_name, sampler_stat)}
sample_stats['tree_size'] = np.diff(sample_stats['tree_size'], axis=1)

var_name = ['phi', 'kappa_log', 'thetas']
posterior = {k:np.swapaxes(v.numpy(), 1, 0) 
             for k, v in zip(var_name, samples)}

az_trace = az.from_dict(posterior=posterior, sample_stats=sample_stats)

az.plot_trace(az_trace, compact=True);

png

az.plot_forest(az_trace,
               var_names=['thetas'],
               kind='ridgeplot',
               linewidth=4,
               combined=True,
               ridgeplot_overlap=1.5,
               figsize=(9, 8));

png

混合效应模型 (Radon)

PyMC3 文档贝叶斯多层建模方法入门中的最后一个模型

对先验执行一些变更（缩小规模等）

Load raw data and clean up

srrs2 = pd.read_csv('https://raw.githubusercontent.com/pymc-devs/pymc3/master/pymc3/examples/data/srrs2.dat')

srrs2.columns = srrs2.columns.map(str.strip)
srrs_mn = srrs2[srrs2.state=='MN'].copy()
srrs_mn['fips'] = srrs_mn.stfips*1000 + srrs_mn.cntyfips

cty = pd.read_csv('https://raw.githubusercontent.com/pymc-devs/pymc3/master/pymc3/examples/data/cty.dat')
cty_mn = cty[cty.st=='MN'].copy()
cty_mn[ 'fips'] = 1000*cty_mn.stfips + cty_mn.ctfips

srrs_mn = srrs_mn.merge(cty_mn[['fips', 'Uppm']], on='fips')
srrs_mn = srrs_mn.drop_duplicates(subset='idnum')
u = np.log(srrs_mn.Uppm)

n = len(srrs_mn)

srrs_mn.county = srrs_mn.county.map(str.strip)
mn_counties = srrs_mn.county.unique()
counties = len(mn_counties)
county_lookup = dict(zip(mn_counties, range(len(mn_counties))))

county = srrs_mn['county_code'] = srrs_mn.county.replace(county_lookup).values
radon = srrs_mn.activity
srrs_mn['log_radon'] = log_radon = np.log(radon + 0.1).values
floor_measure = srrs_mn.floor.values.astype('float')

# Create new variable for mean of floor across counties
xbar = srrs_mn.groupby('county')['floor'].mean().rename(county_lookup).values

对于具有复杂转换的模型，以函数式风格实现会使编写和测试更加方便。此外，它也能够使以编程方式生成以（小批量）输入数据为条件的 log_prob 函数变得更加方便：

def affine(u_val, x_county, county, floor, gamma, eps, b):
  """Linear equation of the coefficients and the covariates, with broadcasting."""
  return (tf.transpose((gamma[..., 0]
                      + gamma[..., 1]*u_val[:, None]
                      + gamma[..., 2]*x_county[:, None]))
          + tf.gather(eps, county, axis=-1)
          + b*floor)


def gen_radon_model(u_val, x_county, county, floor,
                    mu0=tf.zeros([], dtype, name='mu0')):
  """Creates a joint distribution representing our generative process."""
  return tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
      # sigma_a
      tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=mu0, scale=5.),
      # eps
      lambda sigma_a: tfd.Sample(
          tfd.Normal(loc=mu0, scale=sigma_a), sample_shape=counties),
      # gamma
      tfd.Sample(tfd.Normal(loc=mu0, scale=100.), sample_shape=3),
      # b
      tfd.Sample(tfd.Normal(loc=mu0, scale=100.), sample_shape=1),
      # sigma_y
      tfd.Sample(tfd.HalfCauchy(loc=mu0, scale=5.), sample_shape=1),
      # likelihood
      lambda sigma_y, b, gamma, eps: tfd.Independent(
          tfd.Normal(
              loc=affine(u_val, x_county, county, floor, gamma, eps, b),
              scale=sigma_y
          ),
          reinterpreted_batch_ndims=1
      ),
  ])

contextual_effect2 = gen_radon_model(
    u.values,  xbar[county], county, floor_measure)

@tf.function(autograph=False)
def unnormalized_posterior_log_prob(sigma_a, gamma, eps, b, sigma_y):
  """Computes `joint_log_prob` pinned at `log_radon`."""
  return contextual_effect2.log_prob(
      [sigma_a, gamma, eps, b, sigma_y, log_radon])

assert [4] == unnormalized_posterior_log_prob(
    *contextual_effect2.sample(4)[:-1]).shape

samples = contextual_effect2.sample(4)
pprint([s.shape for s in samples])

[TensorShape([4]),
 TensorShape([4, 85]),
 TensorShape([4, 3]),
 TensorShape([4, 1]),
 TensorShape([4, 1]),
 TensorShape([4, 919])]

contextual_effect2.log_prob_parts(list(samples)[:-1] + [log_radon])

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-3.95681828, -2.45693443, -2.53310078, -4.7717536 ])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-340.65975204, -217.11139018, -246.50498667, -369.79687704])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-20.49822449, -20.38052557, -18.63843525, -17.83096972])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-5.94765605, -5.91460848, -6.66169402, -5.53894593])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-2.10293999, -4.34186631, -2.10744955, -3.016717  ])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=
 array([-29022322.1413861 ,   -114422.36893361,  -8708500.81752865,
           -35061.92497235])>]

变分推断

JointDistribution* 的一项非常强大的功能是您可以轻松地为变分推断生成逼近。例如，要执行平均场自动微分变分推断，您只需检查计算图并将所有未观察到的分布替换为正态分布。

平均场自动微分变分推断

您还可以使用 tensorflow_probability/python/experimental/vi 中的实验性功能来构建变分逼近，它们与下面使用的逻辑基本相同（即使用 JointDistribution 来构建逼近），但使用的是原始空间而非无界空间内的逼近输出。

from tensorflow_probability.python.mcmc.transformed_kernel import (
    make_transform_fn, make_transformed_log_prob)

# Wrap logp so that all parameters are in the Real domain
# copied and edited from tensorflow_probability/python/mcmc/transformed_kernel.py
unconstraining_bijectors = [
    tfb.Exp(),
    tfb.Identity(),
    tfb.Identity(),
    tfb.Identity(),
    tfb.Exp()
]

unnormalized_log_prob = lambda *x: contextual_effect2.log_prob(x + (log_radon,))

contextual_effect_posterior = make_transformed_log_prob(
    unnormalized_log_prob,
    unconstraining_bijectors,
    direction='forward',
    # TODO(b/72831017): Disable caching until gradient linkage
    # generally works.
    enable_bijector_caching=False)

# debug
if True:
  # Check the two versions of log_prob - they should be different given the Jacobian
  rv_samples = contextual_effect2.sample(4)

  _inverse_transform = make_transform_fn(unconstraining_bijectors, 'inverse')
  _forward_transform = make_transform_fn(unconstraining_bijectors, 'forward')

  pprint([
      unnormalized_log_prob(*rv_samples[:-1]),
      contextual_effect_posterior(*_inverse_transform(rv_samples[:-1])),
      unnormalized_log_prob(
          *_forward_transform(
              tf.zeros_like(a, dtype=dtype) for a in rv_samples[:-1])
      ),
      contextual_effect_posterior(
          *[tf.zeros_like(a, dtype=dtype) for a in rv_samples[:-1]]
      ),
  ])

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-1.73354969e+04, -5.51622488e+04, -2.77754609e+08, -1.09065161e+07])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-1.73331358e+04, -5.51582029e+04, -2.77754602e+08, -1.09065134e+07])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-1992.10420767, -1992.10420767, -1992.10420767, -1992.10420767])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-1992.10420767, -1992.10420767, -1992.10420767, -1992.10420767])>]

# Build meanfield ADVI for a jointdistribution
# Inspect the input jointdistribution and replace the list of distribution with
# a list of Normal distribution, each with the same shape.
def build_meanfield_advi(jd_list, observed_node=-1):
  """
  The inputted jointdistribution needs to be a batch version
  """
  # Sample to get a list of Tensors
  list_of_values = jd_list.sample(1)  # <== sample([]) might not work

  # Remove the observed node
  list_of_values.pop(observed_node)

  # Iterate the list of Tensor to a build a list of Normal distribution (i.e.,
  # the Variational posterior)
  distlist = []
  for i, value in enumerate(list_of_values):
    dtype = value.dtype
    rv_shape = value[0].shape
    loc = tf.Variable(
        tf.random.normal(rv_shape, dtype=dtype),
        name='meanfield_%s_mu' % i,
        dtype=dtype)
    scale = tfp.util.TransformedVariable(
        tf.fill(rv_shape, value=tf.constant(0.02, dtype)),
        tfb.Softplus(),
        name='meanfield_%s_scale' % i,
    )

    approx_node = tfd.Normal(loc=loc, scale=scale)
    if loc.shape == ():
      distlist.append(approx_node)
    else:
      distlist.append(
          # TODO: make the reinterpreted_batch_ndims more flexible (for 
          # minibatch etc)
          tfd.Independent(approx_node, reinterpreted_batch_ndims=1)
      )

  # pass list to JointDistribution to initiate the meanfield advi
  meanfield_advi = tfd.JointDistributionSequential(distlist)
  return meanfield_advi

advi = build_meanfield_advi(contextual_effect2, observed_node=-1)

# Check the logp and logq
advi_samples = advi.sample(4)
pprint([
  advi.log_prob(advi_samples),
  contextual_effect_posterior(*advi_samples)
  ])

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([231.26836839, 229.40755095, 227.10287879, 224.05914594])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float64, numpy=array([-10615.93542431, -11743.21420129, -10376.26732337, -11338.00600103])>]

opt = tf.optimizers.Adam(learning_rate=.1)

@tf.function(experimental_compile=True)
def run_approximation():
  loss_ = tfp.vi.fit_surrogate_posterior(
        contextual_effect_posterior,
        surrogate_posterior=advi,
        optimizer=opt,
        sample_size=10,
        num_steps=300)
  return loss_

loss_ = run_approximation()

plt.plot(loss_);
plt.xlabel('iter');
plt.ylabel('loss');

png

graph_info = contextual_effect2.resolve_graph()
approx_param = dict()
free_param = advi.trainable_variables
for i, (rvname, param) in enumerate(graph_info[:-1]):
  approx_param[rvname] = {"mu": free_param[i*2].numpy(),
                          "sd": free_param[i*2+1].numpy()}

approx_param.keys()

dict_keys(['sigma_a', 'eps', 'gamma', 'b', 'sigma_y'])

approx_param['gamma']

{'mu': array([1.28145814, 0.70365287, 1.02689857]),
 'sd': array([-3.6604972 , -2.68153218, -2.04176524])}

a_means = (approx_param['gamma']['mu'][0] 
         + approx_param['gamma']['mu'][1]*u.values
         + approx_param['gamma']['mu'][2]*xbar[county]
         + approx_param['eps']['mu'][county])
_, index = np.unique(county, return_index=True)
plt.scatter(u.values[index], a_means[index], color='g')

xvals = np.linspace(-1, 0.8)
plt.plot(xvals, 
         approx_param['gamma']['mu'][0]+approx_param['gamma']['mu'][1]*xvals, 
         'k--')
plt.xlim(-1, 0.8)

plt.xlabel('County-level uranium');
plt.ylabel('Intercept estimate');

png

y_est = (approx_param['gamma']['mu'][0] 
        + approx_param['gamma']['mu'][1]*u.values
        + approx_param['gamma']['mu'][2]*xbar[county]
        + approx_param['eps']['mu'][county]
        + approx_param['b']['mu']*floor_measure)

_, ax = plt.subplots(1, 1, figsize=(12, 4))
ax.plot(county, log_radon, 'o', alpha=.25, label='observed')
ax.plot(county, y_est, '-o', lw=2, alpha=.5, label='y_hat')
ax.set_xlim(-1, county.max()+1)
plt.legend(loc='lower right')
ax.set_xlabel('County #')
ax.set_ylabel('log(Uranium) level');

png

满秩自动微分变分推断

对于满秩自动微分变分推断，我们想逼近多元高斯分布后验。

USE_FULLRANK = True

*prior_tensors, _ = contextual_effect2.sample()

mapper = Mapper(prior_tensors,
                [tfb.Identity() for _ in prior_tensors],
                contextual_effect2.event_shape[:-1])

rv_shape = ps.shape(mapper.flatten_and_concat(mapper.list_of_tensors))
init_val = tf.random.normal(rv_shape, dtype=dtype)
loc = tf.Variable(init_val, name='loc', dtype=dtype)

if USE_FULLRANK:
  # cov_param = tfp.util.TransformedVariable(
  #     10. * tf.eye(rv_shape[0], dtype=dtype),
  #     tfb.FillScaleTriL(),
  #     name='cov_param'
  #     )
  FillScaleTriL = tfb.FillScaleTriL(
        diag_bijector=tfb.Chain([
          tfb.Shift(tf.cast(.01, dtype)),
          tfb.Softplus(),
          tfb.Shift(tf.cast(np.log(np.expm1(1.)), dtype))]),
        diag_shift=None)
  cov_param = tfp.util.TransformedVariable(
      .02 * tf.eye(rv_shape[0], dtype=dtype), 
      FillScaleTriL,
      name='cov_param')
  advi_approx = tfd.MultivariateNormalTriL(
      loc=loc, scale_tril=cov_param)
else:
  # An alternative way to build meanfield ADVI.
  cov_param = tfp.util.TransformedVariable(
      .02 * tf.ones(rv_shape, dtype=dtype),
      tfb.Softplus(),
      name='cov_param'
      )
  advi_approx = tfd.MultivariateNormalDiag(
      loc=loc, scale_diag=cov_param)

contextual_effect_posterior2 = lambda x: contextual_effect_posterior(
    *mapper.split_and_reshape(x)
)

# Check the logp and logq
advi_samples = advi_approx.sample(7)
pprint([
  advi_approx.log_prob(advi_samples),
  contextual_effect_posterior2(advi_samples)
  ])

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(7,), dtype=float64, numpy=
array([238.81841799, 217.71022639, 234.57207103, 230.0643819 ,
       243.73140943, 226.80149702, 232.85184209])>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(7,), dtype=float64, numpy=
array([-3638.93663169, -3664.25879314, -3577.69371677, -3696.25705312,
       -3689.12130489, -3777.53698383, -3659.4982734 ])>]

learning_rate = tf.optimizers.schedules.ExponentialDecay(
    initial_learning_rate=1e-2,
    decay_steps=10,
    decay_rate=0.99,
    staircase=True)

opt = tf.optimizers.Adam(learning_rate=learning_rate)

@tf.function(experimental_compile=True)
def run_approximation():
  loss_ = tfp.vi.fit_surrogate_posterior(
        contextual_effect_posterior2,
        surrogate_posterior=advi_approx,
        optimizer=opt,
        sample_size=10,
        num_steps=1000)
  return loss_

loss_ = run_approximation()

plt.plot(loss_);
plt.xlabel('iter');
plt.ylabel('loss');

png

# debug
if True:
  _, ax = plt.subplots(1, 2, figsize=(10, 5))
  ax[0].plot(mapper.flatten_and_concat(advi.mean()), advi_approx.mean(), 'o', alpha=.5)
  ax[1].plot(mapper.flatten_and_concat(advi.stddev()), advi_approx.stddev(), 'o', alpha=.5)
  ax[0].set_xlabel('MeanField')
  ax[0].set_ylabel('FullRank')

png

graph_info = contextual_effect2.resolve_graph()
approx_param = dict()

free_param_mean = mapper.split_and_reshape(advi_approx.mean())
free_param_std = mapper.split_and_reshape(advi_approx.stddev())
for i, (rvname, param) in enumerate(graph_info[:-1]):
  approx_param[rvname] = {"mu": free_param_mean[i].numpy(),
                          "cov_info": free_param_std[i].numpy()}

a_means = (approx_param['gamma']['mu'][0] 
         + approx_param['gamma']['mu'][1]*u.values
         + approx_param['gamma']['mu'][2]*xbar[county]
         + approx_param['eps']['mu'][county])
_, index = np.unique(county, return_index=True)
plt.scatter(u.values[index], a_means[index], color='g')

xvals = np.linspace(-1, 0.8)
plt.plot(xvals, 
         approx_param['gamma']['mu'][0]+approx_param['gamma']['mu'][1]*xvals, 
         'k--')
plt.xlim(-1, 0.8)

plt.xlabel('County-level uranium');
plt.ylabel('Intercept estimate');

png

y_est = (approx_param['gamma']['mu'][0] 
         + approx_param['gamma']['mu'][1]*u.values
         + approx_param['gamma']['mu'][2]*xbar[county]
         + approx_param['eps']['mu'][county]
         + approx_param['b']['mu']*floor_measure)

_, ax = plt.subplots(1, 1, figsize=(12, 4))
ax.plot(county, log_radon, 'o', alpha=.25, label='observed')
ax.plot(county, y_est, '-o', lw=2, alpha=.5, label='y_hat')
ax.set_xlim(-1, county.max()+1)
plt.legend(loc='lower right')
ax.set_xlabel('County #')
ax.set_ylabel('log(Uranium) level');

png

贝塔-伯努利混合模型

一种混合模型，其中多个审查者使用未知（真实）潜在标签标记某些条目。

dtype = tf.float32

n = 50000    # number of examples reviewed
p_bad_ = 0.1 # fraction of bad events
m = 5        # number of reviewers for each example
rcl_ = .35 + np.random.rand(m)/10
prc_ = .65 + np.random.rand(m)/10

# PARAMETER TRANSFORMATION
tpr = rcl_
fpr = p_bad_*tpr*(1./prc_-1.)/(1.-p_bad_)
tnr = 1 - fpr

# broadcast to m reviewer.
batch_prob = np.asarray([tpr, fpr]).T
mixture = tfd.Mixture(
    tfd.Categorical(
        probs=[p_bad_, 1-p_bad_]),
    [
        tfd.Independent(tfd.Bernoulli(probs=tpr), 1),
        tfd.Independent(tfd.Bernoulli(probs=fpr), 1),
    ])
# Generate reviewer response
X_tf = mixture.sample([n])

# run once to always use the same array as input
# so we can compare the estimation from different
# inference method.
X_np = X_tf.numpy()

# batched Mixture model
mdl_mixture = tfd.JointDistributionSequential([
    tfd.Sample(tfd.Beta(5., 2.), m),
    tfd.Sample(tfd.Beta(2., 2.), m),
    tfd.Sample(tfd.Beta(1., 10), 1),
    lambda p_bad, rcl, prc: tfd.Sample(
        tfd.Mixture(
            tfd.Categorical(
                probs=tf.concat([p_bad, 1.-p_bad], -1)),
            [
              tfd.Independent(tfd.Bernoulli(
                  probs=rcl), 1),
              tfd.Independent(tfd.Bernoulli(
                  probs=p_bad*rcl*(1./prc-1.)/(1.-p_bad)), 1)
             ]
      ), (n, )), 
    ])

mdl_mixture.resolve_graph()

(('prc', ()), ('rcl', ()), ('p_bad', ()), ('x', ('p_bad', 'rcl', 'prc')))

prc, rcl, p_bad, x = mdl_mixture.sample(4)
x.shape

TensorShape([4, 50000, 5])

mdl_mixture.log_prob_parts([prc, rcl, p_bad, X_np[np.newaxis, ...]])

[<tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float32, numpy=array([1.4828572, 2.957961 , 2.9355168, 2.6116824], dtype=float32)>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float32, numpy=array([-0.14646745,  1.3308513 ,  1.1205603 ,  0.5441705 ], dtype=float32)>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float32, numpy=array([1.3733709, 1.8020535, 2.1865845, 1.5701319], dtype=float32)>,
 <tf.Tensor: shape=(4,), dtype=float32, numpy=array([-54326.664, -52683.93 , -64407.67 , -55007.895], dtype=float32)>]

推断（ No-U-Turn 采样器）

nchain = 10
prc, rcl, p_bad, _ = mdl_mixture.sample(nchain)
initial_chain_state = [prc, rcl, p_bad]

# Since MCMC operates over unconstrained space, we need to transform the
# samples so they live in real-space.
unconstraining_bijectors = [
    tfb.Sigmoid(),       # Maps R to [0, 1].
    tfb.Sigmoid(),       # Maps R to [0, 1].
    tfb.Sigmoid(),       # Maps R to [0, 1].
]
step_size = [tf.cast(i, dtype=dtype) for i in [1e-3, 1e-3, 1e-3]]

X_expanded = X_np[np.newaxis, ...]
target_log_prob_fn = lambda *x: mdl_mixture.log_prob(x + (X_expanded, ))

samples, sampler_stat = run_chain(
    initial_chain_state, step_size, target_log_prob_fn, 
    unconstraining_bijectors, burnin=100)

# using the pymc3 naming convention
sample_stats_name = ['lp', 'tree_size', 'diverging', 'energy', 'mean_tree_accept']
sample_stats = {k:v.numpy().T for k, v in zip(sample_stats_name, sampler_stat)}
sample_stats['tree_size'] = np.diff(sample_stats['tree_size'], axis=1)

var_name = ['Precision', 'Recall', 'Badness Rate']
posterior = {k:np.swapaxes(v.numpy(), 1, 0) 
             for k, v in zip(var_name, samples)}

az_trace = az.from_dict(posterior=posterior, sample_stats=sample_stats)

axes = az.plot_trace(az_trace, compact=True);

png

使用联合分布的贝叶斯建模

依赖项和前提条件

Import and set ups

加快速度！

JointDistribution

（稳健）线性回归

Get data

传统 OLS 模型

其他 JointDistribution* API

最大似然估计

Define some helper functions

批处理版本模型和马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法

More checks: comparing the generated log_prob fucntion with handwrittent TFP log_prob function.

使用 No-U-Turn 采样器的马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法

A common run_chain function

Student-T 方法

前向采样（先验预测采样）

最大似然估计

马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法

分层部分池化

前向采样（先验预测采样）

最大似然估计

马尔科夫链蒙特卡洛法

混合效应模型 (Radon)

Load raw data and clean up

变分推断

平均场自动微分变分推断

满秩自动微分变分推断

贝塔-伯努利混合模型

推断（ No-U-Turn 采样器）

其他 `JointDistribution*` API

A common `run_chain` function